Carbon and its Compounds

80 lessons, pages 1361–1440.

  1. Carbon Bonding Beyond the Basics — Tetravalency and covalent structure as a basis for molecular diversity
  2. Valence Electrons and Four Carbon Bonds — Electron sharing and the octet in familiar carbon compounds
  3. Carbon–Carbon Bonding and Catenation — How carbon skeletons grow through stable covalent links
  4. Straight, Branched and Cyclic Skeletons — Distinguishing chain connectivity before adding functional groups
  5. Single, Double and Triple Bonds Revisited — Bond order, unsaturation and consequences for formulae
  6. Reading Complete Structural Formulae — Counting every carbon, hydrogen and bond in displayed structures
  7. Condensed Structural Formulae — Translating between CH₃CH₂ notation and displayed bonds
  8. Skeletal Formulae for Carbon Chains — Inferring implicit carbon atoms and attached hydrogens
  9. Molecular Formula Versus Connectivity — Why one atom count can represent different compounds
  10. Three-Dimensional Carbon Geometry — Tetrahedral centers and the limits of flat drawings
  11. Hydrocarbon Families as a Map — Alkanes, alkenes, alkynes and ring families compared
  12. Alkane Formula from an Open Chain — Deriving CₙH₂ₙ₊₂ for saturated acyclic hydrocarbons
  13. Naming Straight-Chain Alkanes — Chain length prefixes and the -ane suffix from methane onward
  14. Alkane Chain Length and Properties — Molecular size, dispersion forces and boiling trends
  15. Alkane Substitution with Halogens — One hydrogen replaced under suitable photochemical conditions
  16. Alkenes and the Carbon Double Bond — Unsaturation and the open-chain CₙH₂ₙ formula
  17. Locating a Double Bond in a Name — Numbering an alkene chain to show the C=C position
  18. Alkene Addition of Bromine — Product structure and conditional bromine-water decolourisation
  19. Alkene Hydrogenation — Adding H₂ across a double bond under catalytic conditions
  20. Alkene Hydration — Adding water across C=C and identifying an alcohol product
  21. Alkynes and the Carbon Triple Bond — Open-chain CₙH₂ₙ₋₂ and the ethyne example
  22. Addition at a Triple Bond — Successive addition and changed unsaturation in simple alkynes
  23. Saturation Tests and Their Limits — Bromine-water observations versus proof of exact structure
  24. Rings and the Hydrogen Count — Cycloalkanes and one degree of unsaturation without a double bond
  25. Benzene as a Distinct Carbon Ring — Resonance-informed bonding and why alkene rules do not transfer directly
  26. Structural Isomers of Butane — Two carbon skeletons with the same C₄H₁₀ formula
  27. Structural Isomers of Pentane — Systematically finding three C₅H₁₂ carbon skeletons
  28. Chain and Position Isomerism — Comparing skeleton changes with functional-group or multiple-bond positions
  29. Distinguishing Isomers from Conformers — Connectivity change versus rotation about a single bond
  30. Why Isomers Have Different Properties — Shape, packing and intermolecular forces at fixed formula
  31. The Homologous-Series Pattern — Successive CH₂ increments, common functional group and related reactions
  32. General Formulae and Their Conditions — Using family formulae without applying them to rings or mixed functions blindly
  33. Functional Groups as Reactive Sites — Recognising a characteristic atom group within a carbon skeleton
  34. Haloalkane Functional Group — A carbon–halogen bond and simple naming examples
  35. Alcohol Functional Group — Recognising –OH attached to saturated carbon and the -ol suffix
  36. Ether Functional Group — An oxygen bridge between two carbon groups
  37. Aldehyde Functional Group — A terminal carbonyl and the -al suffix
  38. Ketone Functional Group — An internal carbonyl and the -one suffix
  39. Carboxylic Acid Functional Group — The –COOH group, its acidic hydrogen and naming
  40. Ester Functional Group — Recognising –COO– between carbon groups and a first naming pattern
  41. Amines as Nitrogen-Containing Compounds — A first comparison of –NH₂ with alcohol and acid functions
  42. Functional-Group Identification from Formulae — Recognising groups in condensed and displayed structures
  43. Choosing the Parent Carbon Chain — Longest eligible chain and inclusion of the principal functional group
  44. Numbering a Parent Chain — Locants for branches, multiple bonds and simple functional groups
  45. Naming Methyl and Ethyl Branches — Simple substituents and positions in elementary IUPAC names
  46. Naming Alcohols by Position — Propan-1-ol versus propan-2-ol and numbering choices
  47. Naming Alkenes and Alkynes — Parent chain, unsaturation suffix and lowest suitable locant
  48. Naming Aldehydes and Ketones — Locating carbonyl carbon and choosing -al or -one
  49. Naming Simple Carboxylic Acids — Counting the acid carbon and applying -oic acid
  50. Reading a Name into a Structure — Reconstructing chain, locants and functional group from an IUPAC-style name
  51. Ethanol Structure and Properties — A two-carbon alcohol, hydrogen bonding and miscibility
  52. Ethanol Combustion — Balancing complete oxidation of an oxygen-containing fuel
  53. Ethanol Oxidation to Ethanoic Acid — Recognising carbon oxidation without treating a net equation as a mechanism
  54. Ethanoic Acid Structure and Acidity — Carboxyl group and reaction with water as a weak acid
  55. Ethanoic Acid with Bases — Neutralisation to ethanoate salt and water
  56. Ethanoic Acid with Carbonates — Salt, water and carbon dioxide from a balanced reaction
  57. Esterification of an Alcohol and Acid — Ethanol plus ethanoic acid forming an ester and water
  58. Ester Hydrolysis — Reversing ester formation under specified acidic or basic conditions
  59. Comparing Alcohols, Acids and Esters — Functional-group structure linked to characteristic reactions
  60. Combustion Across Organic Families — Balancing carbon and hydrogen oxidation for varied fuels
  61. Complete Versus Incomplete Organic Combustion — Oxygen supply, CO, soot and limits of ideal equations
  62. Organic Reactions: Addition and Substitution — Comparing changes to alkene and alkane skeletons
  63. Organic Reactions: Oxidation and Esterification — Distinguishing functional-group change from condensation
  64. Reaction Conditions Matter — Catalyst, heat, light and concentration in named transformations
  65. Molecular Mass Across a Homologous Series — Adding CH₂ and tracking formula and molar-mass increments
  66. Boiling Trends in Carbon Compounds — Dispersion forces, molecular shape and hydrogen bonding
  67. Solubility of Organic Molecules — Hydrocarbon portions, polar groups and water compatibility
  68. Fats, Oils and Ester Links — A first structural view of triglyceride-type ester bonds
  69. Saponification of Fats — Base hydrolysis yielding glycerol and fatty-acid salts
  70. Soap Molecules and Their Two Ends — Hydrophobic hydrocarbon tail and hydrophilic ionic head
  71. Micelles and Grease Removal — Self-assembly and dispersal of oily soil in water
  72. Soap in Hard Water — Calcium and magnesium ions forming insoluble fatty-acid salts
  73. Detergents Compared with Soaps — Head-group chemistry and performance in hard water
  74. Everyday Uses of Carbon Compounds — Linking functional groups to fuels, solvents, polymers and materials
  75. Carbon Compound Formula Audit — Checking valence, hydrogen count and structural connectivity
  76. Organic Naming Error Clinic — Correcting parent-chain, position and suffix mistakes
  77. Mixed Functional-Group Classification — Sorting simple structures into families using group evidence
  78. Mixed Organic Reaction Predictions — Choosing plausible products only when reagents and conditions are specified
  79. Carbon Compounds Integrated Problems — Joining formulae, isomers, naming and reaction stoichiometry
  80. Carbon and its Compounds Unit Review — Carbon bonding, families, naming, reactions and everyday applications