Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids

40 lessons, pages 2306–2345.

  1. The Carbonyl Functional Group — C=O polarity and the three compound families in scope
  2. Naming Aldehydes — Terminal –CHO group, -al suffix and aromatic examples
  3. Naming Ketones — Internal C=O position and -one locants
  4. Carbonyl Geometry and Polarity — Trigonal-planar carbonyl carbon and electrophilic character
  5. Physical Properties of Aldehydes and Ketones — Dipole interactions, water acceptance and boiling trends
  6. Preparation by Alcohol Oxidation — Primary-to-aldehyde and secondary-to-ketone selectivity
  7. Why Carbonyl Carbon Is Electrophilic — Bond polarisation and resonance contributors
  8. Nucleophilic Addition: General Mechanism — Nucleophile attack, alkoxide formation and proton transfer
  9. Aldehyde Versus Ketone Addition Reactivity — Steric and electronic factors in carbonyl attack
  10. Cyanohydrin Formation — Conceptual CN⁻ addition and new C–C bond formation
  11. Bisulfite Addition Compounds — Reversible addition and carbonyl identification or separation
  12. Hydration of Aldehydes and Ketones — Geminal diols and substituent effects on equilibrium
  13. Hemiacetal Formation — One alcohol addition to a carbonyl group
  14. Acetals and Ketals — Further alcohol addition and carbonyl protection concept
  15. Imine and Oxime Formation — Nitrogen nucleophile addition followed by water loss
  16. Reduction of Aldehydes and Ketones — Hydride addition to primary or secondary alcohol products
  17. Oxidation of Aldehydes and Ketones — Aldehyde-to-acid oxidation and ketone resistance under mild conditions
  18. Qualitative Carbonyl Tests — Tollens, Fehling and derivative tests with limitations
  19. Alpha Hydrogens and Enolisation — Carbonyl-adjacent hydrogens and keto-enol equilibrium
  20. Enolate Ions as Nucleophiles — Resonance-stabilised alpha-carbon attack
  21. The Aldol Addition — Enolate addition to another aldehyde or ketone
  22. Aldol Condensation and Dehydration — Beta-hydroxy carbonyl to alpha-beta-unsaturated product
  23. Crossed Aldol Selectivity — Multiple enolates, non-enolisable partners and product mixtures
  24. Cannizzaro Reaction Concept — Disproportionation of suitable non-enolisable aldehydes
  25. Conjugated Carbonyl Compounds — Direct versus conjugate addition to alpha-beta-unsaturated systems
  26. Aldehyde and Ketone Integrated Problems — Naming, addition, oxidation and aldol choices
  27. Carboxylic Acid Structure and Naming — –COOH group, -oic acid suffix and ring-attached examples
  28. Physical Properties of Carboxylic Acids — Hydrogen-bonded dimers, boiling and water solubility
  29. Why Carboxylic Acids Are Acidic — Carboxylate resonance and pKa comparison with alcohols
  30. Substituent Effects on Carboxylic Acid Acidity — Inductive withdrawal, distance and aromatic substituents
  31. Carboxylate Salts and Acid-Base Reactions — Neutralisation, bicarbonate reaction and aqueous forms
  32. Preparing Carboxylic Acids by Oxidation — Primary alcohol and aldehyde oxidation pathways
  33. Carboxylic Acid Derivatives Overview — Acyl compounds and nucleophilic acyl substitution
  34. Esterification of Carboxylic Acids — Acid-catalysed equilibrium with alcohols
  35. Ester Hydrolysis and Saponification — Acid and base hydrolysis with product accounting
  36. Acid Chlorides and Amide Formation — Activated acyl donors and amine attack
  37. Decarboxylation Concepts — Loss of CO₂ from suitable carboxylic-acid derivatives
  38. Acid-Base Extraction of Carboxylic Acids — Reversible carboxylate formation and phase preference
  39. Carboxylic Acid Integrated Problems — Structure, acidity, derivative reactions and equilibrium
  40. Carbonyl Compounds Review — Evidence-led comparison of aldehydes, ketones and acids