Solutions and Colligative Properties

30 lessons, pages 2026–2055.

  1. Solutions at the Molecular Level — Solute–solvent interactions and the energetics of dissolving
  2. Molarity and Molality — Concentration per volume of solution versus mass of solvent
  3. Mole Fraction in Binary Solutions — Particle-count composition and xA + xB = 1
  4. Mass Percentage and Parts per Million — Mass-based composition and dilute-solution units
  5. Converting Solution Concentrations — Using density and molar mass to connect concentration scales
  6. Vapour Pressure above a Liquid Solution — Dynamic equilibrium and the effect of nonvolatile solute
  7. Raoult's Law for a Volatile Component — Partial vapour pressure proportional to liquid mole fraction
  8. Total Vapour Pressure of an Ideal Binary Solution — Adding component partial pressures across composition
  9. Vapour Composition over a Solution — Why the vapour can be enriched in the more volatile component
  10. Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure — Linking nonvolatile solute mole fraction to solvent pressure
  11. Ideal Solutions and Mixing — Raoult-law behaviour and zero ideal mixing enthalpy and volume
  12. Positive Deviations from Raoult's Law — Weaker unlike interactions and raised vapour pressure
  13. Negative Deviations from Raoult's Law — Stronger unlike interactions and lowered vapour pressure
  14. Azeotropes and Distillation Limits — Constant-boiling composition from vapour–liquid behaviour
  15. Henry's Law for Dissolved Gases — Gas partial pressure and equilibrium mole fraction in a liquid
  16. Gas Solubility and Temperature — Pressure and temperature effects without overgeneralising
  17. Colligative Properties: Counting Particles — Why dilute-solution effects depend on dissolved particle number
  18. Vapour-Pressure Lowering as a Colligative Effect — Using solvent mole fraction for a nonvolatile solute
  19. Boiling-Point Elevation — Delta Tb = Kb m for a dilute nonelectrolyte
  20. Freezing-Point Depression — Delta Tf = Kf m and limits of the dilute model
  21. Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure — Solvent flow across a semipermeable membrane and pi = CRT
  22. Isotonic, Hypotonic and Hypertonic Solutions — Comparing effective osmotic pressure across a membrane
  23. Finding Molar Mass from Colligative Data — Inferring solute amount from measured boiling or freezing change
  24. The van 't Hoff Factor — Effective particle number for dissociating or associating solutes
  25. Dissociation and Association in Solution — Connecting degree of change to an idealised van 't Hoff factor
  26. Abnormal Apparent Molar Mass — How particle multiplication or pairing biases simple calculations
  27. Comparing Colligative Measurements — Checking agreement among pressure, temperature and osmotic data
  28. Reverse Osmosis and Solution Separation — Applying pressure above osmotic pressure for solvent transport
  29. Multi-Step Solution Calculations — Choosing concentration, mole and particle-factor relationships
  30. Solutions and Colligative Properties: Integrated Review — Connecting composition, vapour–liquid equilibrium and particle effects